Abstract: This paper presents the morphology of certain types of verbs in Khasi that are analysed from the perspectives of their meanings. The semantics of light verbs and the semantics of the different copulas in Khasi are described extensively to show that they have a semantic impact on the syntactic structure of Khasi.

 

Introduction:

Khasi as a Mon-Khmer language belonging to the Austro-Asiatic family has been first found mentioned in Grierson (1904). Nagaraja (1985) claims that the Khasis are supposed to have migrated from the South-East of Asia. Their culture, ethnicity and language show close affinity with other Austro-Asiatic branches found in South-East Asia. Khasi society is a matrilineal society. The lineage comes from the mother and the maternal uncle plays an important role in family matters. in the recent classification made by Diffloth (2005), the Khasis are being classified under the name of ‘Khasian’, a branch of the Khasi-Khmuic of the Austro-Asiatic family.

 

Root or stem verbs take bound or related morphemes that either retain class distinction or change the grammatical category of the words.

1. Nominalizer + verb

jiN- yap

Nomz-die

‘Death’

2. Agentive + verb

nN- khrN

Nomz-beg

‘Beggar’

 

3. The morphology compound verbs

The importance of bringing into the discussion the discussion of compound verb morphology in this unit is to show that Khasi allows verb concatenation or compound verbs only to a limited extent. Not more than two verbs can be incorporated together. If in a sequence there occur three verbs, two will always function as main verbs while the one associated with either of the main verb, is a light verb. The light verb in the following sentence is associated to the second main verb.

(50) u	pha/	pön	sum
3sm	ask (V)	cause (v)	bathe (V)

‘He ordered to be bathed’ (He asked someone to bathe him)

1.2.7.4. The Semantics of light verbs

This unit discusses the types of light verbs and their semantics based on the morphology of verbs shown in unit.3 above. This unit is divided into two sub-units. Sub-unit 4.1 focuses on light verbs that indicate verbal activities that are done out of personal desire (technically volitional) and sub-unit.4.2 focuses on those that are done out of (i) an external force or (ii) an inner force which cannot be controlled (both are technically non- volitional).

4.1. Volitional

(a) Activities that are done willingly out of self desire or self will.

(b) Activities done willingly as favours for others without anyone’s demand.

 

Category of verbs indicating volitional actions:

 

(51) EC	Na-sait	jaiø
pro	1s- wash	cloth

‘I wash cloths’

(52) EC	Na-pin-sait	jaiø	ya-u-jn
pro	1s- caus-wash	cloth	Dat-3sm-john

‘I wash cloths for John’ (volitional)

4.2. Non-Volitional

(a) Activities done because of an internal force that arises out of a natural or biological need; such that they become controllable for a short duration and beyond that duration, uncontrollable.

(b) Activities performed due to an external pressure exerted by other individual(s) and not out of self-desire.

Category of verbs indicating non-volitional actions:

Group A: sam is semantically closer to the meaning of ‘urge’ in English. sam is prefixed only to verbs that indicate actions that are results of force or pressure.

(53) sam- rkhE

NV- laugh

‘Urge to laugh’

(54) sam-mut

NV-nose

‘Feel like smiling’

(55) sam-o/(in case of children) / sam-Sabar (formal)/ sam-painkhana (informal)/ sam-

eit (highly informal)

‘Urge to defecate’

(56) sam pi ( formal)/ sam – Sabar( highly formal)/ sam – juN (informal)

‘Urge to urinate’

(57) sam – thia/

‘Sleepy’

(58) sam – jirhia/

‘Urge to sneeze’

(59) sam – prE

‘Urge to vomit’

(60) sam – sinria/

‘Urge to sneeze’

Group B: The light verb used here is the same as the light verb in the example in (46) above. It also has the same meaning as causative. However, in the following example the causation is an unwilling activity of one of the participants.

(61) u	pön	sum
3sm	caus	bathe

‘He bathes someone by force ’

(62) u	pön	iap	ya-u-ksew
3sm	caus	die	Acc-3sm-dog

‘He killed the dog’

(63) u	-pön	-ya-sn/	ya-ki
3sm	cause	VC-join	Acc-3p

‘He joins them together’

(64) u	-pön	bam-pisa
3sm	caus	eat-money

‘He bribed someone’

Group C: The verb pha/ ‘ask’ or ‘send’ in Khasi is a light verb. It also carries the meaning of causation.

(65) u	pha/	– sum	ya-u-bill
3sm	ask	bathe	Acc-3sm-bill

‘He asks Bill to take a bath’

When a noun is incorporated to a verb it behaves like a verb and the other verbs associated to the incorporated noun become light verb. In (60) below, the noun yEw ‘market’ gets incorporated into the already existing complex verb making both verbs light verbs.

(66) u	– pha/	-lEit	– yEw	ya-u-bill
3sm	Send	go	market	Acc-3sm-bill

‘He sends Bill marketing’

5. Copulas and their constructions

For many years till date, school grammar has always translated the English word is into three words:

(i) lN

(ii) dn

(iii) dEi

These three items, though being translated as is in English, and occur in position of is in English equivalent sentences, are found to be distinct in their semantic interpretation. Moreover, substitution by either is completely impermissible. They each seem to have been grammaticalized or derived from other words.

5.1. l  N

(i) The closer English translation is ‘be’ or ‘become’

(ii) It becomes a Noun when a Nominalizer morpheme is prefixed to it for example:

jiN- lN

Nomz-be

‘Character’

(iii) It can also take a Causative prefix:

pön- lN

caus-be

‘Organise/ make/ form’

(iv) It also functions as a main verb for example:

(67) ka- mitiN	ka-la-lN
3sf- meeting	3sf-Perf- start

‘The meeting has happened (started)’

(68) ka- mitiN	ka-la-lN	minnin
3sf- meeting	3sf-Perf- happen	yesterday

‘The meeting was held yesterday’

The following sentences are indicative of the fact that lN is a copula which is derived in some sense from other words:

(69) u-	lN	nN-hikai
3sm	be	Agent-teach

‘He is (a) teacher’

(70) u-	lN	u-nN-ia-lEh-phutbl	ba-paunam	bha
3sm	be	3sm-Agent-VC-do-football	rel.pro-famous	very

‘He is a very famous football player’

(71) u-	lN	piyn
3sm	be	peon

‘He is (a) peon’

 

l  N seems to indicate a character that has become of a person, or a state of being that has been acquired by an individual.

(72) u-	lN	phisar	Ãm	dEi	piyn
3sm	be	officer	Neg	right	peon

‘He is an officer not a peon’

(73) u-	lN	phisar	ba	dn	burm
3sm	be	officer	rel.pro	have	respect

‘He is an officer who is respectable’/ ‘He is a respectable officer’

(74) u-	lN	dktr
3sm	be	doctor

‘He is (a) doctor (by profession or he has become a doctor)’

(75) u	la-lN	dktr	minta
3sm	Perf-be	doctor	now

‘He has become a doctor now’

(76) u-	lN	u-ba	jEmnud
3sm	be	3sm-rel.pro	gentle

‘He is a gentle person’ (by personal character)

(77) u-	lN	u-ba	sniEw	bha
3sm	be	3sm-rel.pro	bad	very

‘He is a very bad person’ (by personal character)

In the following sentences, lN describes the nature or character of a person (but as an assumption or a nature that a person shows but that he may or may not possess it).

(78) u-	lN	u-ba	jEmnud	ha-khmat	jN-Na
3sm	be	3sm-rel.pro	gentle	Loc-eyes	Poss-1s

‘He is a gentle person in my eyes’

 

5.2. d  n

(i) It is derived from the verb dn ‘have/possess’ as in:

(79) u-	dn	ka-yiN	kaba-hE/
3sm	have	3sf-house	3sf-rel.pro-big

‘He has a big house’

(ii) It has an existential meaning in subjectless sentences. Khasi has no expletives.

(80) la- dn	u-wEi	u-si/em
Perf-be	3sm-one	3sm-king

‘There was a king’/’There existed a king’

(81) dn	u-briEw	ha-kpEr
be	3sm-man	Loc-garden

‘There (exists) is a man in the garden’

(82) u- dn	ha-yiN
3sm-be	Loc-home

‘He is at home’ (He is present at home)

(83) u-nE	u-jiNthuN	u-dn	ha-man-ki-jaka
3sm-Dem	3sm-plant	3sm-be	Loc-every-3p-place

‘This plant exists everywhere’

5.3. d E i

(i). It expresses modality of necessity.

(ii). It is derived from a word which has the lexical meaning ‘right’ opposite to ‘wrong’

For instance: dEi ‘right/correct’ vs. Ãm- dE i “not right/not correct’

(84) ka-jubab	ka-lN	ka-ba	dEi
3sf-answer	3sf-be	3sf-rel.pro	right

‘The answer is right’

(85) ka-jubab	ka-lN	ka-ba-m	dEi
3sf-answer	3sf-be	3sf-rel.pro-Neg	right

‘The answer is not right’

The sentences below show dEi as a copula

(86) u-	dEi	u-nNhikai	Ãm	u-khinna/
3sm	be	3sm-teacher	Neg	3sm-student

‘He is a teacher not a student’

(87) u-m	dEi	u-nNhikai
3sm-Neg	be	3sm-teacher

‘He is not a teacher’

(88) u-	dEi	u-nNhikai	ba	la-timmEn
3sm	be	3sm-teacher	rel.pro	Perf-old

‘He is a teacher who has grown old’

The following sentences show that the different copulas above have different semantic interpretations.

(89) EC	u-lN	dktr
pro	3sm-be	doctor

‘He is (became) a doctor’ (acquired doctorship)

(90) EC	u-dEi	u-dktr
pro	3sm-be	3sm-doctor

‘He is a doctor’ (Without doubt he is a doctor, not a teacher…)

(91)	u-dn	u-dktr
	3sm-be	3s-doctor

‘There is a doctor’ (associated with English expletive construction)

(92) EC	u-dn	ha-yiN
pro	3sm-be	Loc-home

‘He is at home’

The following sentences show that the absence or presence of copula is syntactic. Sentence (93) contains an adjective. However, the adjective here functions like a verb. Sentence (94) is a predicative adjectival phrase and (95) is an adjectival phrase that behaves as a relative clause. The syntactic structure of adjectival phrases is discussed in detail in Chapter 5. Both (94) and (95) show adjectival clauses as relative clauses.

(93) u-jn	u-bha
3sm-john	3sm-good

‘John is good’

(94) u-jn	u-lN	u-ba-bha
3sm-john	3sm-be	3sm-rel.pro.good

‘John is a good person’

(95) u-jn	u-ba-bha
3sm-john	3sm-rel.pro.good

‘John (who) is good’

6. Adjectives as Verbs

Adjectives are found to function as verbs as (89) above indicate. In the phrases where it functions as a verb, it can be interpreted as a process rather than a quality. Moreover, like verbs, adjectives too take agreement markers, tense as well as negative particles. The following sentences illustrate this analyses. The closest meaning of these sentences are kept in parenthesis since they cannot be literary translated to English.

(96) Na	-jrN	ki-kjat
1s	tall/long	3p-leg

(My legs are being long)

(97) Na	-sniEw	ki-khmat
1s	bad	3p-eye

(My eyes are being bad)

Compare (96) and (97) above with the adjectival phrases in (98) and (99) below. (100) and (101) show that adjectives take tense as well as negative particle respectively.

(98) ki-kjat	jN-Na	ki-jrN
3p-leg	Poss-1s	3p-long

‘My legs are long’

(99) ki-khmat	jN-Na	ki-sniEw
3p-leg	Poss-1s	3p-long

‘My eyes are bad’

(100) ki-kjat	jN-Na	ki-n-jrN
3p-leg	Poss-1s	3p-fut-long

‘My legs will be long’

(101) ki-khmat	jN-Na	ki-m-sniEw
3p-leg	Poss-1s	3p-Neg-long

‘My eyes are not bad’

Khasi is rich in subject agreement markers. All nouns in the subject position whether definite or indefinite take agreement markers. The same morphemes that are prefixes attached to subject nouns and verbs for concordance between subjects and verbs function as strong pronominals in object positions, if they stand alone without being associated or attached to any noun. Compare (102) and (103) below:

(102) EC	Na-iyet	ya	u
pro	1s-love	Acc	3sm

‘I love him’

(103) EC	Na-iyet	ya	u-jn
pro	1s-love	Acc	3sm-john

‘I love John’

Conclusion:.

Khasi is highly a mono-syllabic language with more or less no morphological structure at all. Each word functions as an independent morpheme However, series of words concatenated together in a phrase is found to be productive. For instance, verb complex or compound verb structure is present in Khasi. If the compound verb has two members, one functions as the main verb, the other as a light verb. If the compound verb is a three member complex, two function as main verbs and one as light verb. Light verbs in a two-member compound are pre-main verbs, and in the three-member complex, the light verb occurs in between the two main verbs. These occurrences are syntactically defined. Moreover, the semantics of light verbs show that they can be lexically meaningful independently. Adjective functioning as verbs, is a common phenomenon in some Indian languages. Khasi transforms adjectives into verbs and assigns to them the meaning of ‘process’.

References

Acharya, S. K. 1971. Languages of the Khasi. Mainstream. 19-36.

Bareh, H. 1979. A Short History of Khasi Literatute. Scorpio Press.

Diffloth.G. F. 2005. Austro-Asiatic Languages. In Britannica Online Encyclopedia.

Grierson, G. A. 1904. Linguistic Survey of India. Volume 2. Calcutta Government Printing Office. Calcutta.

Henderson, E, J. A. 1976b. Vestiges of Morphology in Modern Standard Khasi. In Jenner. et. al. (eds). 477-522.

Lyngdoh, S.A. (2012). Empty Categories in Khasi. Unpublished Ph D Thesis. Delhi University, Delhi

Nagaraja, K. S. 1985. Khasi: A Descriptive Analysis. Deccan College Post-Graduate Research Institute. Poona.

Nagaraja, K. S. 1993. Khasi Dialects: A Typological Consideration. Mon-Khmer Studies xxiii: 1-10.

Nagaraja, K. S. 1995. Agreement in Khasi and Munda Languages. Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute. Pune.

Roberts, H. 1891. A Grammar of the Khasi Language. London: Kegan Paul. Trench, Tru_bner and co.

Shangpliang. J. S. 1987. Khasi Pronouns in the Written and Spoken Language. In H.W. Sten (ed). Khasi Studies 1: 54.

War, B. 1986. The Passive Construction in Khasi. In P. N. Dutta Burwa (ed). Languages of the North East India

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Tags:

Grammar, Khasi, North-East Linguistics, Syntax